Top Moments in U.S. Diplomatic History

444 Days: Memoirs of an Iran Hostage: John Limbert describes how the mob of Iranian Revolutionaries attacked the embassy, his “stupid” attempt to calm the crowd, his initial days of captivity, and a mock execution.

Women in the Foreign Service – You’ve Come a Long Way, Baby! This shows that the Foreign Service was not always so accommodating to women.

The U.S. Embassy Nairobi Bombings: The Nairobi terrorist attacks on U.S. embassies killed 212 people and wounded thousands. When people enlist in the Foreign Service, they know that these are the risks they are taking on, but they choose to serve their country regardless.

A Hostage in Communist China, 1948-49: When Mao Zedong and the People’s Liberation Army captured Mukden in 1948, the communists held the American consulate hostage for months because they refused to surrender U.S. assets. Elden Erickson recounts how water, electricity, and all communication was cut off from the Americans.

Captive in the Congo: In 1964, a U.S. consulate in the Congo and 320 other people were taken hostage by rebels. Before they were captured, officer Michael Hoyt evacuated Americans, but he and others stayed behind to destroy classified documents in the building, protecting American secrets at all costs. As the rebels attacked, Michael Hoyt valiantly worked to protect his staff, risking his own life to do so. They were held hostage for 111 days and nearly executed until a U.S.-Belgian operation rescued them.

Recalling the Attack on the U.S. Compound in Benghazi – from June 1967: In 1967, an angry mob stormed the U.S. embassy in Libya, climbing in through broken windows. The staff bravely prioritized the destruction of highly classified documents, having to share five gas masks between the ten of them as they worked. When the mob broke in, the Americans nobly refused to fire into the crowd. Instead, they fought their way out with ax handles and rifle butts. Even when the building was set on fire, the staff refused to leave, continuing to protect American secrets.

The Bombing of U.S. Embassy Beirut — April 18, 1983: In 1983, Ambassador Robert S. Dillon was stationed in Lebanon when the embassy was attacked by the terrorist organization Hezbollah. While he survived, 63 people died, and many of his colleagues were badly injured. Despite being attacked, in the hours following, the embassy staff put on a brave face, and the Ambassador announced that Americans would not be cowed by terrorism. In the days following, the foreign service officers bravely resumed their work, and Ambassador Dillon later served in Austria.

Independence and “Catastrophe”: The Deadly Founding of Israel, May 14, 1948: In 1948, Israel was thrown into violent chaos as governing British forces pulled out. As public order collapsed, Americans working in the U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem were shot at with machine guns. In the first few days, several American FSOs were shot. In the following month, the Consulate General sheltered in place, and several Americans died, including the Consul General. Despite this violence, these Foreign Service officers continued their duties, reporting to Washington and working to arrange a peace settlement.

Death of an FSO, As Remembered By His Widow: On April 15, 1984, Foreign Service officer Dennis Keogh was caught in a bomb blast in Oshakati, Namibia. Keogh had been helping negotiate a “peace without losers” in the war between Namibia (then known as South West Africa) and South Africa. In this Moment, Keogh’s widow Susan describes his legacy, and the impact of his death on their family. Note that Susan Keogh later joined the Foreign Service. 

The Terrorist Attack on the Saudi Embassy — Khartoum, 1973: In March of 1973, Ambassador to Sudan Cleo Noel and Deputy Chief of Mission George Curtis Moore were murdered by the terrorist group Black September. According to interviewee Robert Fritts, Noel and Moore were well-regarded by their peers, and their deaths left the American embassy in Sudan in shock. Fritts went on to help revive flagging morale in the embassy.

The Assassination of Ambassador John Gordon Mein, Guatemala, 1968: Describes the death of John Gordon Mein, the first U.S. Ambassador to be assassinated. (In total, eight U.S. Ambassadors have died in the line of duty.)  While serving as the Ambassador to Guatemala in the middle of the Guatemalan Civil War, Mein was ambushed and murdered by members of a local guerrilla group.

Viet Cong Invade American Embassy — The 1968 Tet Offensive: During the Vietnam War’s Tet offensive in January of 1968, a group of Viet Cong fighters attempted to raid the U.S. embassy in Saigon, South Vietnam. Foreign Service Officer E. Allan Wendt, and Marine Guard Sgt. Ronald Harper, helped carry away wounded personel, and risked their lives so that others could escape the danger.The armed personnel of the embassy fought back the VietCong forces, and waited for backup to arrive. Eventually, the U.S. forces managed to defeat the VietCong assailants, preventing them from entering the embassy building.

Operation Dragon Rouge: In 1964, several US diplomats were kidnapped by rebels in the Congolese city of Stanleyville (now called Kisangani), and held hostage for 111 days. Congo Desk Officer, William E. Schaufele Jr, began to coordinate a rescue mission with the Congolese authorities. A joint US-Belgian rescue team was formed, and the operation was named Dragon Rogue. Paratroopers were dropped into Stanleyville, and rescued the hostages.

“A Recipe for Endless War” – The Rise of the Taliban: Theresa A. Loar worked in Afghanistan despite the Taliban’s take over, their ban on women working, and the prohibition on women being treated in hospitals. She risked her life serving the State Department.

“Our Man is Inside” — The U.S. Ambassador, Kidnapped at a Reception – Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training (adst.org): Diego Asencio, former U.S. Ambassador to Colombia, describes his time as a hostage of the Colombian socialist guerilla group M-19. Despite the danger, Asencio and several others bravely negotiated terms that would be acceptable to both their kidnappers and to the Colombian government. 

Making the World a Safer Place — Nuclear Arsenals and the Fall of the USSR: Featured accounts of different people who were directly involved in resolving complex issues and promoting the Lisbon Protocol.

The Unknown Actor in Kosovo: Lawrence Rossin:  After the Kosovo War, Rossin facilitated multilateral negotiations to reach and enforce a peace treaty. He drafted the Verification Agreement between Yugoslavia and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe.

The Birth of NAFTA: Features accounts from commercial counselor Dale Slaght and Deputy Director to the Special Trade Representative Julius L. Katz on their contributions to NAFTA. Slaght coalesced support for the agreement among Canadian businessmen and assured the Canadian government that their cultural industries would not be harmed. Meanwhile, Slaght navigated the complex debates over “Rules of Origin.”

Breaking Chains: The Continual Fight Against Human Trafficking: Featured accounts of combating human trafficking. Theresa A. Loar investigated and prevented human trafficking abroad, protected victims, and prosecuted criminals. She helped pass The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000. Ambassador Charles A. Ray with the Cambodian government to stop local human trafficking, initiating raids against  these criminal rings. Marie Therese Huhtala raised awareness about human trafficking in Thailand.

The Iran Hostage Crisis: Diplomatic Drama and Legal Innovation: Mark Feldman helped negotiate the freedom of American Foreign Service officers during the Iran Hostage Crisis of 1979, remarkably without paying a ransom. Feldman helped regulate the sanctions against Iran, drafted the critical claims agreement, and managed the release of financial assets to Iran in exchange for the hostages. He also aided American investors to obtain billions of dollars in compensation for their losses in the revolution.

China Invades Taiwan? No Chance! Ambassador Burton Levin’s analysis shaped American policy towards China and Taiwan, leading Nixon to recognize the two countries as separate entities, a policy which persists to this day. His advice also shaped Nixon’s policy of detent towards China, helping open the communist country to the rest of the world and deescalating geopolitical tensions.

From START to Finish: Behind the Scenes of the Tense U.S.-Soviet Nuclear Disarmament in Reykjavík: The START I Treaty was vital to decreasing the threat of nuclear war and promoting nuclear nonproliferation during the Cold War. Drawing from his long military background, Lieutenant General Edward L. Rowny developed and negotiated START I, paving the way for the end of the Cold War.

Escape from the Congo: In 1961, as the Congo descended into civil war, FSO Terry McNamara evacuated American citizens, prioritizing women and children. He arranged a one-hour ceasefire to evacuate the missionaries, many of whom refused to leave when he arrived. These missionaries inevitably regretted their decision, and McNamara was forced to arrange another ceasefire and return to evacuate them.

The Tiananmen Square Massacre — June 4, 1989: In response to the 1989 protests in China, the PRC government sent in troops to mass murder civilians. U.S. Ambassador to China James R. Lilley immediately began evacuating U.S. embassy staff, American citizens, and Chinese dissidents. This was incredibly difficult due to the number of American students and businessmen in China, as well as the concerned families bombarding the embassy with calls.

Operation Eagle Pull before the Fall of Phnom Penh: In April 1975, as the Khmer Rouge seized Cambodia, Ambassador John Gunther Dean evacuated Americans and foreign nationals from the capital, Phnom Penh, which was surrounded by the insurgents. The Ambassador had tried in vain to negotiate peace with the Khmer Rouge to save the lives of Cambodian civilians, two million of which would later die in the genocide. However, when it became apparent that Congress would not seek a negotiated solution, Ambassador Dean refocused his efforts on what could be done: evacuating everyone who wanted to leave, particularly Americans and people who would be targeted by the Khmer Rouge.

The USS Pueblo Incident — Assassins in Seoul, A Spy Ship Captured: When North Korean forces seized the U.S. naval ship the USS Pueblo in 1968, American diplomats scrambled to rescue the crew. Richard A. Ericson assisted in the negotiation operations with the DPRK, leading to the successful repatriation of the hostages several months later.

Apocalypse Not – The Evacuation from Can Tho, Vietnam — April 1975: As South Vietnam fell to the communists, American Consul General Terry McNamara defied his ambassador and pushed to evacuate American and Vietnamese staff. Despite resistance in the CIA and State Department, McNamara initiated an evacuation while preventing panic from spreading. In defying the Ambassador’s orders not to evacuate Vietnamese employees, McNamara preserved America’s reputation as a reliable ally and upheld American values of selflessness, loyalty, and equality.

Development in South Asia and Latin America: USAID in the ‘90s: Working for USAID, Sher Plunkett provided vital food provisions to people in need and encouraged local food production so that the region could become less dependent on aid.

Communist Containment in the Middle East: Emergence of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO): The Central Treaty Organization was an economic pact established in the 1950s to prevent the spread of communist influence in the Middle East. To further this goal, Ambassador John McDonald facilitated the construction of telephone systems and a railway between Ankara, Turkey, and Tehran, Iran. Ultimately, McDonald successfully improved relations between Turkey, Pakistan, and Iran by coordinating economic growth, advancements in their mining industries, and research and education in preventive medicine. 

The Day Stalin’s Daughter Asked for Asylum in the U.S.: In 1967, American diplomats facilitated Joseph Stalin’s daughter, Svetlana Alliluyeva, to escape to America where she denounced her father and the USSR, a great victory for America in the Cold War.

Japanese Fishermen and the Bikini Atoll H-bomb Blast: After the 1954 Bikini Atoll incident, American diplomats in Japan worked to protect and care for civilians affected by atomic blasts. The U.S. embassy in Japan convinced Washington to fund a hospital to treat nuclear victims.

Combating Illicit Trade in Ancient Art to Protect the Cultural Heritage of Mankind: State Department legal adviser Mark Feldman helped negotiate, draft, and implement legislation outlawing the sale and international trafficking of stolen archaeological artifacts. The United States led the way for more countries to follow suit in the fight to combat the looting of important cultural artifacts. Due to the work of this real-life Indiana Jones, since the 1980s, the United States repatriated stolen art and relics.

A Never-ending Tragedy — The Onset of the AIDS Crisis in Africa: Part of this Moment describes the work of Deputy Assistant Secretary for Sub-Saharan Africa Prudence Bushnell, who made significant strides in addressing the AIDS crisis in Africa. Bushnell was one of the first individuals in the Foreign Service to raise awareness about the impact of AIDS.

A Soul Filled with Shame –The Rwandan Genocide, April 7- July 18,1994: During the horrors of the Rwandan genocide, Prudence Bushnell fought to save civilians. Despite massive obstruction within the U.S. government, Bushnell lobbied tirelessly for the U.S. to take action. In addition, Bushnell used her position as a platform to appeal publicly for an end to the killings, an approach that had helped her save lives during ethnic conflict in Senegal. 

Operation Winter Warmth – Helping Armenia in Its Darkest Hour: After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the newly independent nation of Armenia was on the edge of a famine. During the chaos that resulted from the dissolution of the USSR, Armenia found itself without food nor oil. As the winter of 1994 approached, it seemed the Armenian people would starve and freeze. In order to prevent a famine from occurring, U.S. ambassador Harry Gilmore coordinated with several agencies and organizations to bring food and fuel to Armenia, helping the Armenian population survive the winter. 

Children of War: Rehabilitating Former Child Soldiers in Mozambique: During the Mozambican Civil War, many of the belligerent sides used children in their militaries. These children would be kidnapped and trained in the art of warfare, including killing civilians. The then U.S. ambassador for Mozambique, Melissa Wells, was part of a program that was aimed at rehabilitating these child soldiers, with the purpose of helping them recover from trauma they suffered, and help them reintegrate into society.

Senegal’s Locust Plague in the late 1980s: In the late 1980s, swarms of locusts posed a serious threat to the livelihood of Senegal’s farmers. USAID Deputy Director George Carner played a substantial role in American relief efforts, working with donors and speaking to the press.

A Book you can Swear By: Becoming Ambassador in the Most Unusual of Circumstances: In 1990, as civil war ravaged Liberia,  Peter de Vos was appointed as the US Ambassador to the country. As he was getting ready to leave in a rush, he was informed that he could not leave until had been sworn in. In order to get him to Liberia on time, US ambassador to Sierra Leone Johny Young and Consular Officer Allen Latimer swore de Vos via two-way-radio. With no Bible with him, de Vos used his address book as a substitute for the oath.

Egos and Architecture: The decade of the 1980s was a high-paced decade for the members of the Foreign Operations Build (FBO). This office is in charge of the construction, management, and operations of U.S. diplomatic facilities across the globe. The 1983 bombing of the U.S. embassy in Beirut, forced the DoS to make rigid safety changes to embassies, forcing many to close and be replaced. Foreign Service Officer John Helm was tasked with analyzing the design plans for new embassies submitted by architects. Many of the designs would range from the impractical, to the absurd. Helm also had to fight with many architects and fellow FBO members that placed their pride and ego over practicality and common sense. 

April Fool’s Day in the Foreign Service: Describes light hearted moments FSOs such as Peter Galbarith, Allen Davis, Robert Dillong, among others, played April Fool’s Day jokes with their colleagues, or were victim to practical jokes by other staff members or civilians of the regions they served in.